The Lake Isle of Innisfree
The Wild Swans at Coole
September 1913
Easter 1916
Sailing to Byzantium
(In Memory of Con Markiewicz and Eva Gore Booth)
The Lake Isle of Innisfree
This poem was written in 1888 and represents Yeats’ early romantic, lyrical and more idealistic style. The poem conveys Yeats’ yearning to escape the dreariness and dullness of urban life and live in a secluded, idyllic setting on Lough Gill, Co. Sligo.
The poem opens with an emphatic and rather urgent statement ‘I will arise and go now and go to Innisfree’. The tone is rather dream-like. Yeats states that he will build ‘a small cabin…of clay and wattles made.’ The use of assonance in this line with the repeated ‘a’ sound slows down the pace of the poem and adds to the rather sedate and serene tone. Yeats plans, somewhat idealistically, to have ‘nine bean rows’ and ‘a hive for the honeybee.’ He will ‘live alone in the bee loud glade.’
Yeats continues to describe the tranquil setting in the second stanza. Peace is referred to as having a physical presence that ‘comes dropping slow.’ It drops from ‘the veils of the morning’ (a wonderful metaphor for early morning fog) to ‘where the cricket sings’ (we associate the cricket with night time). Yeats is telling us that an atmosphere of peace permeates the island from morning to night. He reinforces the beauty and peace of the island by describing the moonlight hitting the lake at night ‘there midnight’s all a glimmer.’ As the island is covered in heather, he describes noon as ‘a purple glow.’ Once more, he includes the natural sounds that will surround him, in this instance, it will be ‘linnet’s wings.’ The imagery in this stanza is wonderfully dream-like, reinforced with words like ‘glimmer’, ‘purple’ and ‘glow.’
In the final stanza, Yeats repeats his statement from the opening lines of the poem. His desire to escape the confines of urban life is once more conveyed to us as he confesses that he hears ‘lake water lapping with low sounds by the shore.’ The alliterative ‘l’ sound in this line is wonderfully euphonic and contributes to the overall calming and peaceful tone of the poem. We are then suddenly confronted with a much less attractive image. In a technique which is typical of Yeats, he contrasts the colour and beauty of the island with the roadway and ‘grey’ pavements of London.
The Wild Swans at Coole
In this poem, Yeats once more explores the natural world and his relationship with it. He describes standing on the shore of a lake at Coole Park in Co. Galway and watching swans on the lake. Yeats is clearly fascinated by the swans but he also envies their seemingly eternal youth and beauty, as well as their companionship. The image of a solitary Yeats passively standing on the shore of the lake contrasts starkly with the movement and energy of the swans.
In the first stanza, we are introduced to the setting of the poem. Yeats tells us that ‘the trees are in their autumn beauty’ and ‘the woodland paths are dry.’ The references to ‘autumn’, ‘October’ and ‘twilight’ in the opening stanza introduce us to one of the central themes of
the poem: the concept of aging and the poet’s weariness as he approaches the end stages of his life.
The atmosphere in the opening stanza is still and peaceful. The speaker tells us that there are ‘nine and fifty swans’. This precise detail conveys the poet’s fascination with the swans as well as the amount of leisure time he has.
In the second stanza, we are told that Yeats has been counting the swans for nineteen years. Not only does this confirm his enduring fascination with the birds, it also marks a rather large passage of time. There is a marked contrast in this stanza between speaker and subject, as the swans suddenly ‘scatter wheeling in great broken wings upon their clamorous wings’ before the poet is finished counting them. The poet’s since of loneliness and passiveness is further compounded by this image: while the poet is captivated by the swans, they seem indifferent to him.
The third stanza is the most revealing. There is a contrast between the younger, more carefree Yeats and the older, wearier Yeats. The seemingly eternal beauty and energy of the swans reminds the poet of his own mortality. When he looks at the ‘brilliant’ creatures his heart becomes ‘sore.’ When he first stood on the lakeshore nineteen years before, he ‘trod with a lighter tread.’ Once more, the energy and movement of the swans is reinforced by the cacophonous description of the ‘bell-beat’ of their wings.
In the penultimate stanza, Yeats describes how the swans are ‘unwearied.’ Their seemingly boundless energy and vitality seems to come from the companionship they share with each other. The verbs ‘paddle’ and ‘climb’ reinforce the swan’s vigour. In contrast to the speaker the swans’ ‘hearts have not grown old.’ They still have a sense of ‘passion’ and ‘conquest’ as opposed to the poet, who feels weary and aimless at this juncture of his life.
In the final stanza, the phrase ‘but now’ brings us back to the present moment. Similarly to the opening stanza, the atmosphere is now calm and peaceful. The swans ‘drift on the still water.’ The poet refers to them as ‘mysterious’ and ‘beautiful.’ The poet views the swans as mysterious as he is not aware of where they go when they leave the lake. He seems to envy their ability to ‘wander’ while he appears disillusioned and rather jaded.
The poem is written with a rather erratic rhythm. This perhaps represents the poet’s turmoil and sense of weariness. This contrasts with the regular rhyming scheme of the poem. The poet, while generally fatigued and melancholy, still appreciates the beauty that surrounds him and this is reflected in the rather pleasing rhyming scheme of the poem.
September 1913
This poem is a biting critique of the Catholic middle class of Ireland, whom Yeats viewed as ignorant and apathetic. In the poem, Yeats’ tone is dismissive and rather incredulous, as he scathingly criticises the propensity of the middle class to ‘pray and save.’ Their seeming obsession with material wealth and religion disgusts Yeats, who laments the lack of romance and idealism present in Irish daily life. He recalls the nationalist heroes of the past
and regrets that the ideals they represented and gave their lives for appear to have been largely forgotten by Irish society. Once more, there is a marked contrast in this poem between the romantic heroes of the past and the shallow and materialistic contemporary middle class whom Yeats despises.
The poem opens with a rhetorical question. Yeats is directly addressing the Catholic merchants of Dublin who ‘fumble in a greasy till.’ The inclusion of the word ‘greasy’ debases their work and makes it appear dirty. They seem to mindlessly engage in saving their money and praying until they have ‘dried the marrow from the bone.’ The word ‘shivering’ to describe their fervent praying is particularly effective. Yeats ironically remarks that ‘…men were born to pray and save.’ He then laments that ‘romantic Ireland is dead and gone’. He views the apathy of the Catholic middle class with much disdain. His tone here, while bitter, is also full of regret. The idealism of the past is ‘with O’ Leary in the grave.’ This is a reference to the Fenian, John O’ Leary, whom Yeats greatly admired.
The second stanza references ‘the names that stilled…childish play’. Yeats’ tone here is reverential and rather contrite. He is recalling those who have either been forced into exile or have been executed for the Irish nationalist cause. He notes that they had ‘little time…to pray’ because they were concerned with a much more noble cause. These men willingly gave their lives for their country; the ‘hangman’s rope was spun’ especially for them. Using a colloquial expression, Yeats asks ‘And what, God help us, could they save?’ To Yeats, their deaths appear futile; the Ireland of the early twentieth century does not represent the romantic ideals of the nationalist visionaries of the past. It is ‘dead and gone’.
Yeats opens the third stanza with another effective rhetorical question. He wonders whether the exiles of the past (the ‘wild geese’) and the likes of Robert Emmet, Edward Fitzgerald and Theobald Wolfe Tone sacrificed their freedom or their lives ‘for this’, i.e. the present-day Ireland that Yeats views as indifferent and lacking vision and principles. He praises the ‘delirium of the brave’ and laments its absence in contemporary society.
In the final stanza, Yeats wonders if he could ‘turn the years again’ and encourage the Catholic middle class to appreciate the sacrifices of past nationalist heroes. Yeats concludes that the middle class are incapable of doing so as they would liken the bravery of the heroes to a man’s infatuation with a woman (i.e., something shallow and meaningless). He states that the heroes ‘weighed so lightly what they gave’ in comparison to the Catholic middle class, who are preoccupied with self-gain and the acquisition of material wealth. The poem ends with a slight variation on the refrain at the end of the preceding stanzas ‘But let them be, they’re dead and gone, they’re with O’Leary in the grave.’
Easter 1916
In this overtly political poem, Yeats seems to recant many of the affirmations he so assuredly espoused in September 1913. Written in the aftermath of the 1916 Rising, Yeats’ conflicting emotions on the leaders who orchestrated the rebellion are apparent. On the one hand, he admits that he underestimated their dedication to their cause and he
somewhat tentatively admires their bravery. On the other hand, he views their singular obsession with republicanism as dangerous and somewhat futile. While Yeats refuses to glorify the leaders of the rebellion, he certainly respects their sacrifice. He aptly captures his seemingly contradicting viewpoints with the oxymoronic statement ‘a terrible beauty is born.’ He acknowledges that leaders have played a pivotal role in Irish history.
The first stanza opens with a description of Yeats’ previous encounters with the leaders of the rebellion. He describes them as ‘coming with vivid faces from counter or desk among grey eighteenth-century houses’. This image humanises the republicans and contrasts with their fervent idealism that we see later in the poem. There is no romance in this rather dull image. The reference to ‘grey eighteenth-century houses’ appears rather drab, but it is also a clever allusion to the presence of British aristocracy in Ireland. Yeats states that he would pass them with a ‘nod of the head or polite meaningless words.’ Sometimes, he ‘lingered’ and exchanged shallow pleasantries with these men. It is clear to us that the conversation was mundane and forced, and this is made evident to us through the repetition of the phrase ‘polite meaningless words.’ Yeats admits that he mocked these men ‘to please a companion around the fire at the club.’ This rather unflattering confession demonstrates a rather unpleasant and elitist side to Yeats but he admits that he misjudged the leaders. He was sure that they were merely playing at being rebels in their uniforms, comparing them to clowns who wear ‘motley.’ He realises now, however, that he was wrong. He concludes by stating that ‘all’s changed, changed utterly: A terrible beauty is born.’
Yeats’ tone in the second stanza is one of regret. He alludes to many famous rebels, lamenting their wasted potential. He begins with a reference to Countess Markiewicz, stating that her days were spent ‘in ignorant good will.’ Yeats makes it clear that he did not agree with her political beliefs and that he feels her involvement in the rebellion and republicanism in general has debased her beauty. Her voice, once ‘sweet’ has become ‘shrill’ due to her involvement in partisan politics. Yeats contrasts her current status as an ardent republican, hardened by her fanaticism with her more feminine and aristocratic self, when she was ‘young and beautiful.’ Yeats references both Padraig Pearse and Thomas McDonagh, both poets and playwrights whom Yeats no doubt admired and felt a creative connection with. He remarks that MacDonagh was ‘coming into his force’ as a writer. Yeats even acknowledges the significant part played by his long-time rival, John MacBride. Although he refers to him as a ‘drunken, vainglorious lout’ he concedes that ‘he, too, has resigned his part in the casual comedy.’ The Rising appears almost farcical to Yeats. He acknowledges that MacBride, and indeed Yeats’ opinion of him, has been ‘changed.’
The third stanza opens with the statement ‘hearts with one purpose alone through summer and winter seem enchanted to a stone to trouble the living stream.’ Here, Yeats is stating that abject fanaticism to a singular cause is similar to an immovable stone in a moving stream. The stone, surrounded by change, movement and notably, life, remains fixed and isolated. It is in the ‘midst’ of the beautiful and natural imagery which Yeats includes in this stanza, including clouds, shadows, horses and moorhens. Yeats states that ‘minute by
minute they change’ and ‘minute by minute they live’ as opposed to the hearts of the rebels, which are transfixed and immobile.
Yeats continues the stone metaphor in the final stanza which opens with the line ‘too long a sacrifice can make a stone of the heart.’ Here, Yeats tone is more overtly critical of the rebel’s fanaticism. Yeats openly questions the necessity of their deaths. He states that ‘England may keep faith’ (i.e., grant Home Rule) ‘for all that is done and said.’ Here, Yeats is acknowledging the progress already made in the pursuit of Irish sovereignty. He continues that we now are aware of the rebels’ dreams but also that we know ‘they dreamed and are dead.’ Yeats seems to be suggesting that these dreams are meaningless now, as the rebels are not alive to see their realisation. He wonders if ‘excess of love bewildered them till they died’. Despite all of this, Yeats ends the poem on a reverential and sombre note. He names the rebels directly (MacDonagh, MacBride, Connolly, Pearse) and acknowledges the pivotal role that they have played in the struggle for Irish sovereignty. He states that they will be remembered ‘wherever green is worn’- a stark contrast to the ‘motley’ mentioned in the opening stanza.
It is worth noting the form of this poem: four stanzas, with sixteen lines in stanza one, followed by twenty-four lines in the second stanza, sixteen in stanza three, and twenty-four lines in stanza four. The Rising began on April (the fourth month) 24, 1916.
The refrain at the end of each stanza is particularly effective in encapsulating Yeats’ conflicting emotions in the aftermath of the Rising.
Sailing to Byzantium
Yeats wrote this poem in 1926, while in his sixties. Similarly to The Lake Isle of Innisfree, it is a poem about yearning to escape. Conversely to his earlier poem, which is a celebration of nature, it is a rejection of the transience and impermanence of the natural world. Yeats longs to escape his frail, aging, mortal body and become something immortal, beautiful, artistic and valuable. He does not see that happening in Ireland (his belief that the Irish were rather apathetic about art and culture was explored in September 1913) and so he wishes to ‘sail’ to Byzantium (an ancient city that is now Istanbul) which is known for its ornate and very beautiful gold mosaics. The poem explores a spiritual journey of the soul.
The poem opens with the famous line ‘that is no country for old men.’ Yeats here is referring to Ireland; a country he feels disengaged with and detached from (the word ‘that’ rather than ‘this’ reinforces this). He feels that his aging body contrasts sharply with ‘the young in one another’s arms’. He mentions many natural images in this opening stanza, which appear full of vitality and energy. It is important to note, however, that Yeats is keenly aware of their mortality. They are, as he notes, ‘dying generations.’ While the words ‘salmon-falls’ and ‘mackerel-crowded seas’ suggest fertility and animation, the poet notes that these living creatures will inevitably die. Thus, they are caught in the ‘sensual music’ of life, but they do not think beyond their current existence. Yeats states that they neglect ‘monuments of unageing intellect’, i.e. art (something that Yeats views as immortal). In this sense, he rejects nature in favour of art, something permanent and enduring.
The second stanza opens with the rather self-loathing statement ‘an aged man is but a paltry thing, a tattered coat upon a stick.’ Yeats uses an effective metaphor to compare his ageing body to a scarecrow. The only escape Yeats has from this reality is imagining his soul’s escape from his seemingly decrepit body. Yeats notes that the soul celebrates (or claps it hands) by studying ‘monuments of its own magnificence’ i.e., art. Art is a celebration of human endeavour and creativity. Yeats feels that the best way to nourish the soul is to appreciate artistic achievements and to witness beautiful works of art. His soul is carefree and youthful (the overtly child-like image of the soul excitedly clapping its hands reinforces this) in contrast to his aging body. In order to nourish his soul, Yeat’ soul will take the spiritual journey to the ancient city of Byzantium. The fact that Yeats has ‘sailed’ suggests a rather stately journey, but also something timeless and rooted in ancient tradition.
The third stanza is an invocation to the ‘sages’ of a gold mosaic in Byzantium. He asks these sages to ‘perne in a gyre’ i.e., spin in a spiral and ‘be the singing masters of (his) soul.’ The long ‘y’ sounds in this stanza are particularly effective; they add to the overall theme of eternity and immortality present throughout the poem. He asks the sages to ‘consume his heart away’. His heart, a natural and mortal representation of his longings and yearnings, is ‘sick with desire.’ He refers to it as ‘fastened to a dying animal.’ He has no need for his mortal body any longer, as he asks for the sages to gather him ‘into the artifice of eternity.’ The word artifice (something false) may seem like an odd choice, but in a poem that is so critical of the natural word, it is rather fitting that Yeats would want his ideal eternity to be associated with something unnatural or unreal, like art.
The final stanza describes Yeats’ desire to live forever through the medium of art. It is clear to us that in his natural state, Yeats feels undervalued and underappreciated. Therefore, he desires to become something beautiful, meaningful and valuable and above all, immortal. He wants to become something that ‘Grecian goldsmiths make.’ His new form will give him a sense of purpose (he explored his feelings of passivity in ‘Wild Swans’). He will ‘keep a drowsy emperor awake’ or be set ‘upon a golden bough to sing to Lords and Ladies of Byzantium of what is past, or passing or to come.’ He will serve an important function and will do this for eternity.
In Memory of Eva Gore Booth and Con Markiewicz
Yeats wrote this poem following the deaths of the Gore Booth sisters (Eva in 1926 and Constance in 1927). The poem describes the genteel and idyllic childhood of the sisters, whom Yeats believes were marred by their later involvement with socialism and politics.
The poem opens with a beautiful image of a stately and aristocratic home. The ‘great windows’ of the house are ‘open to the south.’ The sisters live a life of genteel leisure; they wear ‘silk kimonos.’ The enduring description of them wearing kimonos is beautifully exotic and the inclusion of the word ‘silk’ reinforces this wholly feminine and aristocratic image. The girls are described as ‘beautiful’, with the poet giving special attention to Eva, referring to her as a ‘gazelle.’ This conjures up an image of a graceful and feminine beauty.
The tone of the poem shifts suddenly and Yeats reminds us of his preoccupation with the passage of time and its ultimately destructive nature. He tells us that ‘a raving autumn shears blossom from the summer’s wreath.’ He then describes the miserable later years of the sisters. The ‘older’, Constance, ‘drags out lonely years conspiring among the ignorant.’ Here, Yeats is referencing her involvement with republican politics. The term ‘conspiring’ suggests an illicit activity that Yeats clearly disapproves of. He views her political affiliation as misguided and ‘ignorant.’ Yeats admits that he doesn’t understand Eva’s motivations and beliefs, which he refers to as a ‘vague Utopia’. He sees her charitable and political work as foolish and even damaging, as she begins to mirror the appearance of the very people she is helping. Yeats uses the extremely unflattering image ‘withered old and skeleton-gaunt’ to describe the older Eva, which contrasts sharply with the earlier image of her as a gazelle. Yeats believes that their involvement with such objectionable politics ruined their youth and beauty. He once more recalls their ‘old Georgian mansion’ and the idyllic image of the two girls in ‘silk kimonos’.
The final stanza is directed at the ghosts, or ‘shadows’ of the sisters. Now that they are deceased they ‘know it all.’ Yeats states that through their deaths, they have gained an awareness of the futility of their liberal politics or as Yeats calls it, ‘the folly of a fight with a common wrong or right.’ The word ‘common’ may be a pun, referring to the class of people the sisters surrounded themselves with. The next line is rather arresting and revealing. Here, Yeats shares one of the central tenets of his poetry: the destructive force of time on youth and beauty. He states ‘the innocent and the beautiful have no enemy but time.’ The sisters, he believes, underestimated their real enemy: time.
The final lines of the poem are rather challenging. The concepts of time and eternity are central to the closing lines. Yeats asks the spirits of the sisters to ‘arise and bid me strike a match’. He seems to want to destroy time entirely by setting it alight. This way, the aesthetic achievements of the sisters and Yeats (and the protestant ascendency in general) will become something eternal and immortal. They are the ‘we’ that Yeats refers to. They built the ‘great gazebo’, a representation of the beautiful architecture and sophistication which Yeats believes the Anglo-Irish Protestant class brought to Ireland. He believes that this was unappreciated by the catholic nationalists, who ‘convicted (them) of guilt’. During the early 1920s, Protestant homes were frequently attacked and burnt by militant
republicans as it was believed they were symbols of a bygone era of British oppression and elitism. By destroying time (notably, with fire), the achievements of the Anglo-Irish class can be immortalised forever.
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